Special Feature:
Peter Blau's Conception of Social
Exchange Theory: A Critique
Bernard N.Ndonga*
Abstract
This paper examines
Blau's conception of social exchange, and the process and factors involved
in social exchange. It then attempts to give a critique of the same in terms
of the process and the practical applicability of Blau's conception in our
daily lives. The paper finally concludes that his conception could be a potential
source of social conflict in society.
Introduction
A number of scholars
such as Peter Blau, George Homans, George Simmel, and Broanslaw Malinowski
have explicated the theory, concept and process of social exchange. Of these
scholars, Blau devoted more time to Social Exchange theory in his book Exchange
and Power in Social Life (1964). However, he left out some important considerations
in his Social Exchange Theory that are the basis of this paper's critical
appraisal. Other critics such as Heath (1976), Ekeh (1974), and Chadwick-Jones
(1976), among others, have dealt with Blau's theory.
Social Exchange
Theory
At the micro-level,
the social Exchange Theory is an elaboration of the Communication Theory;
the latter encompasses more than a symbolic interaction theory. This is because
of the idea that all these theories deal with the way human beings interact
in everyday life. However, some scholars such as Chadwick-Jones (1976) pointed
out that in reality there is no such thing as a Social Exchange Theory, though
the phenomenon is there. What there exists is a collection of propositions
and hypotheses embodying certain general assumptions concerning social life
and social behaviour. Nevertheless, a theory can be formulated from propositions
and hypotheses if they do form a logical and consistent system. Blau's Social
Exchange Theory is constructed from such propositions and hypotheses.
Simmel (1908) suggested
that social interaction takes the form of exchange more than is commonly recognized.
Accordingly, all contact among persons rests on the schema of giving and returning
the equivalent. Malinowski (1922) also demonstrated that "give and take" pervades
the social life of primitive people; that it is based on behaviour that is
reciprocal. Homans (1961), in this same tradition, conceptualized social behaviour
as an exchange of activity that is tangible or intangible, and is more or
less rewarding or costly between at least two persons. Seen in this way, social
exchange becomes rooted in social behaviour; and as such, social behaviour
is the equivalent of social exchange.
Much of human behaviour
is guided by considerations of exchange. Yet for the social exchange process
to take place, there are two important pre-conditions which must exist: Firstly,
behaviour must be oriented towards ends that can only be achieved through
interaction with other persons. This means that an individual who enters or
seeks to enter into a social exchange situation and achieve the desired goal,
has thought about it beforehand and must be ready to relate with other individuals.
Secondly, the behaviour of the individual must seek to adapt means to further
the achievement of these ends. This means that the individual must be ready
to honour the obligations involved in order to obtain and continue receiving
the goals of the original behaviour.
Blau's Conception of Social Exchange
Blau (1964) conceives
of social exchange as a "social process of central significance" in social
life. This process is derived from simpler processes, and from them more complex
processes derive. Accordingly, social exchange involves the voluntary actions
of individuals, which are motivated by the returns they are expected to bring
and in fact do typically bring from others. Human beings enter into new social
associations and expand their interaction with them because they actually
find doing so rewarding. Blau, therefore, gives examples of social exchange
as neighbours exchanging favours; children's' toys; colleagues assistance;
acquaintance courtesies; politicians' concessions; discussants' ideas; and
housewives recipes. These types of exchanges are rather strong in real life
and tend to create enduring links within the social milieu. Many of these
social exchanges are readily recognized and described by those taking part
in them through speech. For instance, the reference to such words as "indebted",
"owe", among others, points to the exchanges that take place in real life.
Social exchange
according to Blau (1964) can be observed everywhere once we are sensitized
about it. It is not only present in market (economic) relations, but in friendships
and in love. This shows that social exchange is pervasive in social life.
Yet Blau has pointed out that not all social behaviour is social exchange,
and not all exchange in social life is social exchange. His concept of exchange
essentially includes that category of social exchange in which all actions
are contingent on rewarding reactions. They cease to be social exchange when
the expected reactions are not forthcoming. This means that rewards are central
to Blau's concept of social exchange. Any social behaviour motivated by an
expected return or response from another, falls under social exchange. For
example, if an individual conforms to the norms of his/her group in order
to win the praise of his/her peers but ceases to conform when the praise is
not forthcoming, one can then talk of social exchange of conformity for approval.
In social exchange,
the crucial aspect is use value. The exchange also involves certain obligations
which are not clarified. Furthermore, in social exchange personal feelings
of gratitude and a degree of trust between the interacting persons is to be
found. Social exchange therefore rests on the norm of reciprocity where one
individual obligates another. In the social exchange process, a return is
expected but it involves diffuse future obligations and not precisely specified
ones. The nature of the return (reciprocal behaviour) cannot be bargained
about but must be left to the discretion of the one who makes it. This essentially
forms the basis of trust in a social exchange situation. According to Blau,
people do honour these social obligations even though there are no formal
contracts entered into.
The Process of and Factors in Social Exchange
Once the two pre-conditions
exist, the process of social exchange, according to Blau (1964), proceeds
in the following manner:
i) Individuals,
in the interest of continuing to receive needed services, need to discharge
their obligations for having received the services in the past.
ii) An individual who supplies
rewarding services to another obligates him.
iii) To honour this obligation,
the obligated person must provide benefits to the
first in turn.
iv) If both these persons
value what they receive from each other, both are likely to supply more of
their own services in order to provide incentives for the other to increase
his supply and to avoid becoming indebted.
v) As both these individuals
receive increasing amounts of the benefits they originally sought, their need
for further assistance typically declines and the process of exchange between
the persons may cease.
As the process
of social exchange takes place, it is affected by various factors such as
the stage in the development of the relationship between the social exchange
partners. For example, new neighbours within a neighbourhood who participate
in social exchange might affect the pattern of exchange than could old ones.
Another factor which might affect the exchange process is the character of
the relationship between the persons, plus the benefits or costs incurred
in the process of exchange. For instance, if one party in the exchange feels
that he/she is incurring more costs than the benefits he/she is receiving,
it might affect the whole process of exchange or even cause it to be terminated.
A Critique of Blau's Social Exchange Theory
Social exchange
as conceptualized by Blau, has implications for the wider society. After all,
the theory has been equated with everyday human behaviour and action. Heath
(1976) strongly criticized exchange theorists on the grounds that the theory
of exchange does not begin with a theory of exchange. Instead, it begins with
a theory of choice. This can be applied not only to exchange but to other
phenomena as well. According to Heath, choice deals with situations of certainty
and those involving risk. This is what he refers to as a "riskless choice":
this means that human beings choose between potential alternative associates
or courses of action by first evaluating the expected returns. After all,
Blau (1964) lay emphasis on voluntary actions and the returns they are expected
to bring. An element of choice must therefore be involved in social exchange.
Although Blau exempted
coerced exchange from what he conceptualized as social exchange, Heath (1976)
pointed out that coerced exchange falls under what can be considered as rational
choice; after all, social exchange depends on both sides finding it preferable
to alternatives open to them at the moment in question. We could therefore
argue that a person who, for example, exchanges his money in order to spare
his life has used rational choice that gravitates to social exchange.
Since social exchange
takes place between individuals in their daily interaction, it can be said
to enhance social integration in society. On the other hand, though it serves
as a basis for the creation of social systems (networks), it can, at the same
time, enhance social inequality (social stratification). This can occur when
an individual who seeks advice from another may be at the mercy of the one
who is giving advice. Further, the more regularly advice is sought the more
the advice giver will demand in terms of rewards from the person given. The
inference here is that advice is given in exchange for recognition of status.
Therefore, the person who gives advice gains a higher status than the one
who seeks it. By so doing, the giver has more power than the receiver, and
consequently, social inequality becomes enhanced.
In his conceptualization,
Blau draws a distinction between social and economic exchange. According to
him, social exchange differs from economic exchange in the sense that the
former is based on trust, obligations and gratitude but does not involve some
moral obligation, whereas the latter involves some contracts. Yet in our daily
experiences, we do observe economic transactions that are preceded by social
exchange. For example, governments will first enter into informal deals where
heads of states may visit each other on non-economic matters. Such visits
lay the foundation on which trust obligations and gratitude are established.
In subsequent visits, the two heads of states may enter into economic transactions
where contractual agreements may be entered into. This may be the reason why
Blau seems to indicate that both are part of a general phenomenon of exchange.
During the process
of exchange, and as the exchanging parties continue to receive increasing
amounts of what they originally needed, their need for further assistance
declines. This is termed "marginal utility". Some questions arise here, such
as what happens after this decline? Do the persons involved in the exchange
cut off all relations with each other; and if they do, what happens? Firstly,
it is the contention of this paper that it is not realistic for the needs
of both persons to decline at the same rate in real life: One person's needs
must decline before the other's. Once this happens, that one person cuts off
the relationship, there is the possibility that the other might feel misused
and even neglected. This could be the basis for social tensions. Blau's social
exchange process is therefore a potential source of social conflict. Alternatively,
the relationship may gradually lose the momentum it started off with leading
to an eventual break up. For example, in terms of individuals visiting one
another, such a relationship may eventually wane if one of the parties feels
that the expected returns are no longer worthwhile.
Nevertheless, the
Social Exchange Theory provides us with an understanding of why people enter
into various social contracts and remain in them. Also, it provides a link
between the study of everyday social life and further improves our understanding
of the social processes that govern relations between persons.
Further, Blau's
conceptualization of social exchange allows us to gain insight into how social
structures are created and why they persist. Also, it can be significant,
as it has already been, in analysing various structures.
* The author is a
lecturer in the Department of Social Sciences at the Catholic University of
Eastern Africa. He has long experience in university teaching and research
spanning 13 years. His main areas of interest in research are health, democracy
and government, rural/urban development, and gender issues.
Correspondence
Bernard N. Ndonga
Department of Social
Sciences
Catholic University
of Eastern Africa
P O Box 62157
Nairobi, Kenya
Fax 891084, Email:
research@cuea.edu
References
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